S H 




THE FISHERIES AND THE GUANO 
INDUSTRY OF PERU ^ ^ ^ 



From BULLETIN OP THH BUREAU OF FISHERIES, Volume XXVIII, 1908 



Proceedings of the Fourth International Fishery Congress : : Washington, 1908 




WASHINGTON 



GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE :::::: 1910 



THE FISHERIES AND THE GUANO 
INDUSTRY OF PERU =^ -^ 



^ 



From BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES, Volume XXVIII, 1908 
Proceedings of the Fourlh Inlernational Fishery Congress : : lVashtitglo7i, ipoS 




t^^*-'^ 



WASHINGTON ::::;: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 



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BUREAU OF FISHERIES DOCUMENT NO. 663. 

Issued February. 1910. 



MAR 2 1910 






THE FISHERIES AND THE GUANO INDUSTRY OF PERU 

By Robert E. Coker 

Lately Fishery Expert to the Government of Peru. 

J- 

Paper presented before the Fourth International Fishery Congress 
held at Washington, U. S. A., September 22 to 26, 1908 



CONTENTS. 



Page. 

I. The fisheries 335 

Conditions and resources 335 

History and present state of the fisheries 341 

Fishing craft 341 

Methods of capture 345 

Preservation of fishery products 347 

Future of the fishery industry 354 

II. The guano industry 356 

The problem ■_ 357 

The guano-producing birds 358 

The cormorant __ 358 

The pelican 360 

Thegannet 361 

The penguin and the petrel 361 

Extraction of the guano and protection of the birds 362 

Conclusion : 365 

334 



THE FISHERIES AND THE GUANO INDUSTRY OF PERU. 



By ROBERT E. COKER, 
Lately Fishery Expert to the Government oj Peru. 



I. THE FISHERIES. 

Doubtless the fishes and the fishery resources of no country represented at 
this congress are less known to the world than are those of Peru. That the 
resources are unstudied is not attributable to their inadequacy or to the failure of 
the people of Peru properly to value them, for Peru possesses a wealth of certain 
valuable forms, and no people could be more highly or more generally appre- 
ciative of fish food ; nor is it because they have any recent origin that the indus- 
tries are little known. In fact, there is reason to believe that centuries before 
the Columbian period the occupation of fishing was pursued in Peru, not simply 
as an unorganized food hunt, but as an important industry. Therefore neither 
the natural conditions nor the nature of the people can account for the scant 
knowledge of the fishery resources or the inadequate state of the industry. 
The explanation is found rather in the unfortunate history which has burdened 
the country since the overthrow of an earlier social and industrial life. It is 
only recently that a stable government has been able to give serious and effect- 
ive attention to the many phases of industrial life of the nation, and to include 
in its many endeavors the effort to conserve and develop the valuable resources 
of the sea. 

CONDITIONS AND RESOURCES OF THE REGION." 

The traveler from the north has his first glimpse of the coast of Peru as the 
steamer, after passing down the Guaya River from the chief port of Ecuador, 
enters the Gulf of Guayaquil. The steamer may, as sometimes happens, touch at 

oFor the scientific names employed in this report I am indebted to those who have kindly identi- 
fied the specimens collected in Peru: Dr. Barton W. Evermann and Mr. Lewis Radcliffe (fishes), Dr. 
W. H. Dall (mollusks), Miss Mary J. Rathbun (crustaceans), and others. 

A forthcoming series of systematic papers by various writers will give a comprehensive view of 
the chief aquatic resources of Peru as far as known at present. For detailed information regarding 
the methods of fishery, as well as the conditions and resources, reference is made to various reports by 
the present writer in the "Boletin del Ministerio de Fomento," Lima, vol, v., no. 12, Dec. 1907; vol. vi. 
no. 2, 3, 4, and 5, Feb. to May, 1908, and others in press. 

335 



336 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

the port of Tumbcs, well known as the landing place of Pizarro. If so, the first 
impression of Peru is that which may have been anticipated of a tropical lati- 
tude — a region of thick vegetation, chiefly mangrove trees in swamps intersected 
by narrow winding estuaries, and traversed by a permanent river of considerable 
volume. The local conditions are similar to those that prevail in the neighbor- 
ing territory of Ecuador. Naturally in such a region there is an abundance of 
shellfish, including oysters and many species of clams and crabs. 

Typical, however, as this Tumbes region may seem for the latitude (3^2° S.), 
and fitting perfectly to the region lying northward, the locality is entirely unique 
for the coast of Peru. About 20 miles beyond the territorial line the aspect of 
the shore presents the sharpest change. As the southern limit of the delta of 
the Guaya is passed, the green luxuriance disappears abruptly to give place to 
shores of barren and desolate appearance, and this new aspect continues prac- 
tically unchanged for the remaining 1,400 miles of the Peruvian coast, and 
onward, in fact, into the domain of Chile. (Fig. i, pi. xii.) 

The type of coast characteristic of the country is, then, the reverse of what 
one might expect of a tropical region. With shores rainless and barren, a 
most significant feature is the practical absence of large rivers emptying into 
the sea or mingling with the ocean waters in coastal sounds or bays. The portion 
of the country west of the lofty western cordillera, the watershed of the conti- 
nent, is a steeply sloping desert interrupted by the narrow valleys of numerous 
little rivers formed from the melting snows of the Andes. In the cooler season 
(May to September) the scant waters of these precipitous streams are soon 
exhausted by natural evaporation or seepage, or spent in the irrigation ditches 
of the fertile valleys. On the other hand, although in the warm period of No- 
vember to March the melting snows swell the rivers into torrents, the coast at 
this time is enduring its driest season, and the soils and irrigated farms are mak- 
ing their greatest demands upon the rivers' flow. Such portion, then, as may 
eventually reach the coast in any season can form but a small lagoon, and this 
may be quite separated from the ocean by a narrow levee of shingle, which the 
surf builds up against the river. The mouth of the Rimac offers a good illus- 
tration of this interesting type of river mouth, across which one may walk 
dry-shod. (Fig. 2, pi. xii.) Beneath one's feet the lagoon empties gradually into 
the ocean through the loose formation of water-worn stones. Only in times of 
excessive flood is the levee actually broken through to form a visible mouth. 

It is unnecessary to point out the significance to the fisheries, or to the 
natural history of the coast, of this general absence of estuaries, sounds, or brack- 
ish bays, such as would off'er a quiet breeding ground for some kinds of ocean 
fishes, or afford a favorable environment for oysters, clams, and other valued 
shellfish. 



FISHERIES AND GUANO INDUSTRY OF PERU. 337 

No fishes ascend the upper courses of the rivers and the very few species 
found in the lower parts are very small and of negligible economic value. 
These little rivers are of great importance to the fisheries, however, as the habitat 
of the most important shellfish of the country, the excellent " cameron de rio." ° 
This fresh- water shrimp is a most highly and deservedly prized product, the 
equal in quality of any crustacean form. The rivers are also significant, since 
in the time of flood the most important of the food fishes, the large " corbina, " 
is found in greatest numbers in the neighborhood of the mouths, probably feeding 
upon the small Crustacea which find their way out of the river. The season of 
" agua nueva " (new water) is a propitious one for the fishermen. 

Consequent upon the absence of large rivers and the steepness of the coast, 
there are few good bays or harbors. Most of the ports are upon a more or less 
exposed shore, where embarkation must be effected through the surf, unless a 
long pier has been built out beyond the ordinary breakers. Even in compara- 
tively calm weather, the great swells rolling into the open bays often assume 
such proportions as to make landings impracticable even with the use of long 
steel piers. Fortunately, the coast is entirely free from storms; but the fisheries 
as well as commerce are seriously handicapped at such ports as Eten, Salaverry, 
Cerro Azul, and MoUendo, where for days at a time communication between sea 
and land is rendered impossible by the prevalence of "la mar brava" (the wild 
sea). 

Untropical as is the coast of Peru in its aspect as described above, it is 
equally so as regards the temperature of the ocean water. There is no more 
significant featiu-e of the coast than the Humboldt or Peruvian current which 
flows northward and northwestward along the west coast of South America, 
bringing the cold antarctic waters down to the equatorial region. To find 
upon the coast of the United States a summer temperature of the ocean water 
corresponding to that of Callao at 12° S. one would go to about the latitude 
of New York on the Atlantic side (41° N.) or Monterey on the Pacific (36° N.). 
The Peruvian current, in conjunction with other factors, particularly the 
constancy of the winds on the coast, produces a relative uniformity of tempera- 
ture conditions. There is little variation in the water temperature from hour 
to hour during the day, little difference from month to month during the year, 
and a relatively small change from latitude to latitude. It is probable that 
such variations as are found are due more to very local conditions, or to the 
swinging of the current, than to seasonal changes or differences of latitude. 
At Callao (12° S.) the water in early summer was at 15-19° C. (59-66° F.) and 
in early winter from 16.5 to 19° C. (61-66° F.); at Paita (5° S.), in April, 
records from 15.5° to 20.5° C. were taken, with an average of 17.5° C. (63.5° F.) ; 

<» Bithynis ccementarius gaudichaudi (Milne-Edwards). 

B. B. F. 1908 — 2 2 



338 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OK FISHERIES. 

while at Mollendo (17° S.), more than a thousand miles to the south — or as 
far away from Paita as New York from Miami, Fla. — the midwinter temper- 
ature was 16° C. (61° F.). This current leads the fishermen to go southward 
from the port instead of northward, if a prompt return journey is desired, and 
its supposed swinging movements are of further significance, as it causes certain 
pelagic fishes to approach or recede from the coast. 

With such low-water temperatures a tropical fauna is, of course, absent. 
Corals are wanting, sponges nearly so, and the general character of the fauna 
and flora of the region is such as would ordinarily be found in much higher 
latitudes. 

In contrast to the barrenness of the coast there is a peculiar wealth of 
certain forms in the open ocean. The great red seas, formed sometimes, at 
least, of myriads of microscopic dinoflagellates, are of common occurrence. 
They are of uncertain value and sometimes seem to work much injury. Some- 
times, too, great areas of the surface of the sea are reddened by the vast 
numbers of small Crustacea (Munida), which then play a part of great importance 
as food for the fishes and for the guano-producing birds. More striking still are 
the immense schools of small fishes, the "anchobetas" {Engraulis ringens 
Jenyns) , which are followed by numbers of bonitos and other fishes and by sea 
lions, while at the same time they are preyed upon by the flocks of cormorants, 
peHcans, gannets, and other abundant sea birds. It is these birds, however, that 
ofifer the most impressive sight. The long files of pelicans, the low-moving black 
clouds of cormorants, or the rainstorms of plunging gannets probably can not be 
equaled in any other part of the world. These birds feed chiefly, almost exclu- 
sively, upon the anchobetas. The anchobeta, then, is not only an article of diet 
to a large number of Peruvians, and the food of the larger fishes, but, as the food 
of the birds, it is the source from which is derived each year probably a score 
of thousands of tons of high-grade bird guano. It is therefore to be regarded 
as the most valuable resource of the waters of Peru. No more forcible 
testimony to its abundance could be ofi'ered than the estimate, made roughly, 
but with not wide inaccuracy, that a single flock of cormorants observed at the 
Chincha Islands would consume each year a weight of these fish equal to one- 
fourth of the entire catch of the fisheries of the United States. 

The fisliing grounds and opportunities, especially with the methods of 
fishery now in use, are restricted by the scarcity of good bays and by the 
rapid deepening of the water off the shore. Yet there are compensatory 
features. In proximity to almost every' port are groups of islands, often 
with numerous coves and abundant outlying rocks, which offer a varied home 
for many species of rock and shore fishes. Along the coast proper some of the 
same species are found, with a good representation of the drums, the Hzas, the 
flounders, and silversides. 



FISHERIES AND GUANO INDUSTRY OF PERU. 339 

To mention the most esteemed and important fishes:" The "peje-rey" or 
silverside (an atherinid), the most deUcate of all fishes, is most easily taken in 
early or mid winter when it is depositing its eggs upon the algae near the 
shores; the "corbina" attains a size of 30 or 40 pounds, and from its abundance 
and fine quality is the fish of first rank in importance; the "hza," or mullet, 
and the "lenguados," or flounders, are also of the first class. Yet perhaps 
none of these is superior to the congrio (representative of the Ophidiida;), 
which is not commonly taken except in the southern part of Peru. Nearly a 
hundred food species could be mentioned, but only two or three more of these 
deserve mention for special reasons. 

The bonito, though poor in quality, is, from its abundance and cheapness, 
the fish most available to the poorer people. The anchobetas {Engraulis) 
are favored by the indigenous Peruvians. Large quantities are preserved in the 
crudest way by mixing with salt and spreading on the ground to dry in the sun. 
They are then sacked to be sold at a small price ($1 the sack, more or less). 
This little fish of manifold uses is all the more significant because of the rare oppor- 
tunity it offers for the preparation of an excellent preserved product — an oppor- 
tunity that is not now utilized. 

The selachians (sharks, rays, guitar-fishes, and angel-fishes) are not in most 
countries accounted important food fishes. But they occur in remarkable abund- 
ance in the northern region of Peru, where they are freely used and esteemed 
by the indigenous population. Just northward of the Peruvian waters our 
steamer passed for hours through an enormous aggregation of various kinds of 
selachians, the great giant rays, and sharks of all sizes, hammer-head and sharp- 
nose. \X)n one occasion, in December, 1907, the beaches of the island of Lobos 
de Tierra seemed literally fringed by the protruding fins of sharks basking in the 
shallow waters. 

The preparation of such fishes by drying them in the sun constitutes an 
important industry for the fishermen who frequent the island of Lobos de Tierra 
during the season when it is not closed for the protection of the guano birds. 
This island, unlike the others of the coast, is surrounded by sand bottoms favor- 
able for net fishing. It is only 10 miles from the coast, but about 70 miles from 
the nearest fishing ports (Eten, vSechura). The fishermen form a camp here, 
coming out with their families in balsas (Sechura) or balandras (Eten, Paita). 
All kinds of fishing are pursued, but the most characteristic is the use of large- 
meshed nets of strong material for the capture of selachians and large flounders. 
The skillful manipulation of these fishes for preservation with or without the 
use of salt merits special description in a later connection. 



o Peje-rey, BasilielUhys jordani, etc.; corbina, Scttsna gilberii Abbott; liza, Mugil ccphalus; congrio, 
Genypterus blacodes; bonito, Sarda chilensis. 



340 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

Naturally a coast like that of Peru does not offer a favorable environment 
for many kinds of the better shellfishes. The scallop", "concha abanico," 
"senorita" or "conchita," as it is variously called, is, however, very abundant 
in many places and often attains a large size. It ranks next to the freshwater 
shrimp, the "cameron de rio." Mussels, beach clams, the spiny lobster," and 
various crabs are found in the market, but quite irregularly. The small region 
about the port of Tumbes in the extreme north is as unique for the coast of Peru 
in its fishery resources as in its physical features. From the mouth of the Tumbes 
River to Capon, near the Ecuador line, there is a network of salt and brackish 
estuaries in which thrive a variety of crabs, clams, and mussels. But the chief 
resource of the region is the abundant oyster," which grows attached to the roots 
and branches of the mangrove trees margining the salt creeks (fig. 3, pi. xiii). 
The fishery for oysters is very restricted at present, but there is undoubtedly 
a fair opportunity for its development. 

An allusion should be made to the pearl fishery which, in 1900, was exploited 
in the region from the Bay of Sechura to Paita. It appears that at the start 
the fishery was a success, but after a very brief period ceased to yield, and subse- 
quent efforts failed entirely to locate any banks of pearl oysters. It is possible 
that the discovery of these beds awaits only the prosecution of a systematic 
investigation with deep drags or by diving. The "pearl oyster", or "concha 
perla " of the region is Pleria peruviana Reeve, the shells of which may not infre- 
quently be found upon the beaches. 

Perhaps in no other country is fish food more generally esteemed and used 
when available. So we find that not only the usual edible fishes and larger Crus- 
tacea and mollusks, such as have been mentioned, but a wide variety of smaller 
and less generally esteemed forms are sought and prepared for the trade. In 
some parts of Peru there is hardly an available shore form that is not taken to 
be used as food. As articles of diet, we should include some species of sea 
weeds, the Hippa, h&rrmt crabs and barnacles; the conchs, large and small; 
the crepidulas, patellids, fissurellids and chitons; the excellent sea-urchin and 
the sea-cucumber; the sea-anemone and ascidians — or almost everything of 
suitable size except annelids and jellyfishcs. 

Along the entire coast a considerable element of the population finds its 
support in taking fish for personal use and for the trade. In the larger ports the 
greater part of the product is eaten in fresh condition, but at other places where 
the fish must be conveyed a greater distance to port, or distributed over a wider 
territory on land, the fishermen salt or dry their catch by methods adapted to 
their means and knowledge. 

"Scallop, Pccten fmrpuratus Lamarck; spiny lobster, Puiiulirus ornatus (Fabricius); oyster, Ostrea 
chilensis Philippi and O. columbiensis Hanley. 



FISHERIES AND GUANO INDUSTRY OF PERU. ' 341 

HISTORY AND PRESENT STATE OF THE FISHERIES. 

Many of the present methods employed in the capture or preservation of 
fishes probably date back to a very remote time; for it is interesting to note 
that Peru not only claims an ancient fishery but offers some evidence to indi- 
cate that centuries ago the fishery and related industries had a relatively high 
degree of organization. The interesting story is often told of the system of 
transportation of fresh fish from the coast to the royal home in Cuzco, a region 
where fresh sea fish is never available now. 

Through the earliest writers we know of the appreciation and use by the 
earlier Peruvians of the guano deposits of the coast for their great agricultural 
industries. The rigorous edicts for the protection of the guano-producing birds 
were evidence of admirable foresight and antedated by centuries any further 
effort to preserve the birds. Relics of pottery and gold are found buried in 
the sand or in the guano, and it is an interesting fact that modern explorations 
upon the coast and islands indicate that the villages necessarily supported by 
the fishery or guano-working industries possessed a degree of wealth that could 
have resulted only from an industry of relatively high development. 

The great shell heaps and the islands and causeways of shells in the estuary 
region of the Gulf of Guayaquil testify to an early fishery of oysters and clams 
pursued in no rude or half-measure way. A thousand years of the present 
oyster fishery would not leave a trace comparable to these. 

In short, it is probable that the ancient Peruvians were as competent in 
the fishery as in agricultural, textile, and other industries. Nevertheless, what- 
ever may have been the condition in this earlier period, this industry, like all 
others, certainly fell to a very low stage after the conquest. During the past 
few years new fishermen have come in, new methods have been introduced, 
and better facilities have appeared; and yet the industry is but poorly devel- 
oped, and its condition is distinctly unsatisfactory. 

In attempting to give a brief account of the fishing industry as it is now 
carried on, it is not necessary that modernly introduced methods should receive 
more than the mention. It may be of value, however, to speak more fully of 
those forms of fisheries which may be presumed to have continued._in use since 
the pre-Columbian period — those which are not borrowed but are actually and 
historical^ "home industries." 

FISHING CRAFT. 

It would seem natural that a people who could construct magnificent 
buildings and walls of stone that endure to our present admiration, would have 
fashioned good wooden boats, if the forests of timber had been available; but 
with the coast region desert and barren except for the scrubby growth of alga- 
roba, with its dense and heavy wood, the ordinary materials of boat construction 



342 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

were absent. A resourceful people found a substitute for wood in the reeds 
growing thickly near the rivers; bound together in sufficient numbers, these 
were made into remarkably strong craft which continue even now to serve a 
useful purpose. The "caballito" (fig. 5, pi. xiv) in its simplest form, as now 
used at Pacasmayo, for example, is made of two long bundles of "totora." 
The reeds are individually weak and flimsy, but the bundle, which is well 
wrapped with twine, is strong and comparatively stiff. Each bundle is about 
a foot in diameter at the aft end; forward it enlarges a little, and then tapers 
to a point at the other end. The two bundles are securely bound with rope, 
and the long tapering ends curve upward in graceful form. At a short distance 
from the stern (about one-fifth of the entire length) the inner and upper reeds 
of each bundle terminate squarely to form the forward end of a small pit, where 
the fish may be kept. The pit, which is about a foot deep at its forward end, 
rises gradually to the top of the caballito near the stern." The craft derives 
its Spanish name of "caballito" (pony) from the method of its use. The fish- 
erman sits astride, just forward of the pit, with his legs hanging in the water 
or resting on the side of the boat. For a paddle he uses a plain split of bam- 
boo cane, paddling with each end alternately. With its shapely taper and 
upturned pointed end, the caballito, mounted by an Indian fishenuan, not only 
presents a picturesque appearance, but is most serviceable for use in the short 
swell near the beach where an ordinary boat would be unwieldy. \\'ith his 
caballito anchored just beyond the surf, the fisherman sits just in front of the 
pit and facing astern. Of the three lines in use, two are attached to his belt 
while the third, which is stout and carries a large hook, is secured to the cabal- 
lito. If both hands are busy with one line, the other is held with the toes. 
The fish must be killed with a small stick before being thrown into the pit, 
from which they might easily escape if alive. 

The caballito is also used in net fishing. The net is in the form of a very 
large small-meshed bag which when in the water is kept open by gourd buoys 
attached to the top of the mouth on each side and by stone sinkers on each side 
below. The mesh may be i >2 to 2 centimeter bar. Extending outward from 
each side of the mouth is a"brazo" (arm) of some 8 fathoms length and of 
very large mesh. To the ends of the arms are attached the hauling lines. The 
fishermen astride of their caballitos haul this net through the water to take a 
school of ' ' sardinas ' ' or other fishes , all the time making as much noise in the water 
as they can with feet and paddles. The same type of net may be worked from 
canoes or flat-bottomed boats. (Pacasmayo, Chimbote). 

The totora reeds may be bound together to form a much heavier and larger 
craft than the caballito. The "balsa" of Cerro Azul is made, like a raft, of 



a Dimensions of a caballito: Length, 4.50 meters, width at stern, 0.56 meter, stern to forward 
end of pit, 0.94 meter, depth of pit, forward, 0.30 meter. 



FISHERIES AND GUANO INDUSTRY OF PERU. 343 

three logs well lashed together, but each log is only a bundle of totora, which 
tapers slightly toward the forward end, where it is gently curved upward. The 
diameter at the stern is about 25 centimeters. The bundle consists of an inner 
core or heart ("corazon") and a thin outer shell, so that as the exposed reeds 
decay under the action of the water and the sun they may be removed and 
replaced without disturbing the entire balsa. 

The most elaborate boat of reeds" is the balsa used in Lake Titicaca, where 
it is fashioned in a more boat-like fonn. (Fig. 6, pi. xiv.) The squarish sail is 
woven of the same reeds and somewhat in the fashion of a Venetian blind. 
These balsas are broad, and excavated so that they may accommodate an entire 
family bringing their various products to market. Though we are not at this 
point immediately concerned with the fisheries of the lake, an allusion should 
be made to the use of these totora reeds in the construction of fishing weirs. 
At the small end of the funnel-like weir there is set a net fixed on a conical 
framework of poles which can be raised or lowered from the balsas. 

These boats of reeds could not have sufficed for the longer fishing voyages 
and the commerce from port to port, but this need was supplied by the intro- 
duction of the balsa wood growing in Ecuador. This exceedingly light wood 
possesses the merit of not absorbing water, so that it will float indefinitely. 
From these logs, rafts or balsas are constructed in all sizes, from the small ones 
of about 6 feet length to the large 30 or 40 foot balsas, which have an upper 
deck and are fitted with a large squarish sail. On these the Indians with their 
families will live for weeks. The fishermen of Paita and Sechura find their 
most profitable fishing grounds about the islands of Lobos de Tierra or Lobos 
de Afuera, at distances of 70 to 100 miles from port. Living on the commo- 
dious balsas, the fishermen navigate along the coast, fishing where it is desirable, 
or moving to their camps on the islands, to remain until a cargo is salted away.* 

Some type of canoe is found at every port. Most of these are made from 
wood brought from the region of Guayaquil. "Canoas" of the commoner 
woods are said to last only a few years; "figaroa" is a much better wood; 
"huachapeli," however, is most highly esteemed, and it is said that canoes of 
this wood have a life of a hundred years or more. One of these canoes was 
nearly 15 yards in length, but the ordinary length is from 6 to 9 meters. The 
canoe is usually strengthened with timbers and given greater freeboard by the 
addition of a pine plank on each side. They may be fitted with a large squarish 
sail called a " vela cuadrada " or a " banda." 

Boats of good modern types are to be found at almost every port. When 
the first foreign fishermen (Italian and Spanish) came over, Mediterranean 

"■Malacochcsle totora is used for boats, sails, pontoons, weirs, thatching, etc. 

6 On the brief trip to Mollendo the writer did not have opportunity to examine a balsa made of 
the hides of sea lions, the description of which must, therefore, be omitted. 



344 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

types of boats were introduced, and it is said that for some time the ready- 
built boats were imported by ships coming around the Cape. However that 
may have been, the boats are all built in Peru now and chiefly of American 
white pine strengthened with oak. A variety of types are in use, of which 
the neatest is the felucca ("faluca" or "falucho") as it is employed at Callao. 
This has a round bottom and smooth sides, is pointed at both ends, and may be 
entirely decked. There is a long, narrow hatch, the "escotilla," and in the 
extreme aft end a small "escotilla de popa " opening into a compartment in 
the stern dignified by the name of "salon " and used for the storage of nets or 
fish. With the covers of the escotillas in place, the little boat is snugly decked 
in. The space under the forward deck serves for bedding, clothing, and other 
things, while under the side decks are spaces (" escafetas ") for the keeping of 
cooking utensils, provisions, and miscellaneous equipment. Though the boats 
are small, yet for the period of a fishing trip the fisherman regards his boat as 
his home and equips it accordingly. A typical Callao felucca is 5^2 meters 
in length, 2 meters in width, and 0.65 meter in depth. 

As typical of the felucca, the mast stands about midway and supports a 
triangular lateen sail; that is, a triangular sail which is attached by its fore 
margin to a lateen yard or " entena." The entena hoists obliquejy to the mast. 
For use in the scallop dredging, greater power and convenience are secured by 
modifying the sailing rig. The mast is then placed well forward and a boom and 
gaff sail (schooner-like) is used. 

These closely decked feluccas are found only at Callao. In other ports the 
boats are usually square of stern and uncovered. At all ports the boats seem 
to have no other name than "bote de Pescadores" (fishermen's boat), the desig- 
nation by which they are distinguished from the bote chalanos, canoas, balsas, 
and caballitos. 

One of the common inferior boats of the coast is the bote chalano, with 
square stern, steep sides, and fiat bottom, or, as at Callao, with a wedged but 
fore-and-aft planked bottom. At Callao it is used with a large square sail. 

All of the boats are without centerboards and are comparatively poor 
sailers into the wind. Therefore if a fishing trip is made to northward of the 
port, the return journey against both wind and current is always tedious. The 
use of the centerboard is unknown. 

The best sailing craft are the " balandritas " or small sloops of Pacasmayo. 
The balandras used there for trips to the Lobos Islands are 25 to 30 feet in 
length, with a 7 to 10 foot beam and a depth of 3 >^ to 6 feet. Square of stern, 
well decked in, and with a small cabin, they have fair seagoing qualities and 
may carry from 10 to 14 tons. The balandritas are of the same form, but smaller. 



FISHERIES AND GUANO INDUSTRY OF PERU. 345 

They are good sailers and are well adapted for trolling in the bay for the 40- 
pound robalos." 

Reference to boats would not be complete without mention of the American 
whaleboats which from time to time have been left by the whalers in the 
region of Tumbes. They are used in the local whale fishery and for other 
purposes. Valuing economy of nervQus energy more than saving of time, the 
fishermen of Tumbes avoid any trouble from the centerboard, and cripple their 
boats, by securely sealing the centerboard well from below. 

METHODS OF FISHING. 

Besides a few small and unimportant hand nets, such as the "chaya" and 
the "bajia," there are only four or five types of nets in use. These are the 
"ataraya," or casting net; the "red derecha," or gill net; the "chinchorro," or 
beach hauling seine; the "anchobetera," and the "trasmalla." 

The " trasmalla " (trammel-net) or " red de tres paiios " (net of three cloths) 
is clearly an innovation, and is now found only where it has been directly intro- 
duced by the European fishermen, as at Callao and Mollendo. The others are 
doubtless indigenous to the country, although in some cases apparently modified 
by modern influences. 

Where there are good beaches the fishermen wade into the surf to throw the 
ataraya, but, except when the valued lizas are abundant, the method is slow and 
profitless. (Fig. 4, pi. xiii.) The gill net, "red," or "red derecha," is essen- 
tially the same wherever found, though appearing under a variety of names, 
according to the size of the mesh and the kind of fish for which it is intended. 
Used at the surface or at the bottom, set straight or traplike, in the form of 
the letter S or of a figure 6, employed in the far off shore fishery for bonitos or in 
the treacherous surf on a steep shingle beach, it may have a mesh of any size 
from lyi to 10 centimeters. Thus we find it as a "pejereyera" {1% to 2 cm., 
bar measure) , " cabinsera " (3 cm.) , " lizera " (4 to 5 cm.) , " bonitera " (5 to 7 cm.) , 
"corbinera" (6^ to 9 cm.), "robalera" or "cazonera" (9 to 10 cm.), according 
as the net is designed for the capture of fishes of the sizes of peje-reys, 
cabinsas, lizas, robalos, cazones (large sharks), etc. The measures are always 
stated in "dedos" (fingers), one dedo being equivalent to about 2 centimeters, 
diagonal measure, and therefore the measure in dedos corresponds approxi- 
mately to the bar measure in centimeters. The greatest part of the catch 
of the entire coast is taken by these nets. 

The chinchorro is used where there are suitable beaches. It is a hauling 
seine, with a bag or bolsa about 7 fathoms deep by 2>^ high. -In the back or 

« Chalanos, feluccas, and balandritas may be valued, approximately, at 200 soles, 400 soles, and 
600 soles, or at $100, $200, and $300, respectively. 



346 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

bottom portion for 2 fathoms it is of small mesh and strongly reenforced, while 
the outer portion is of larger mesh (about 8 centimeters). The long "brazos" 
(arms), or "bandas," extending out from each side of the mouth are 13 fathoms 
in length and 50 meshes (10 cm. each) in height. In making a haul, two 
canoas or balsas are used in- putting the net, while it is drawn onto the beach 
by several men, often with two or three mules. 

Perhaps the most characteristic net is the anchobetera, a modification of 
the chinchorro, used in taking the little anchobetas, which occur in such vast 
schools. The bolsa, or copa, is 4 or 5 meters in depth, and, when flattened, 9 or 
10 meters wide (that is, 18 to 20 meters in circumference). The opening or 
mouth of the bolsa is surrounded by a sort of funnel, of four portions; the upper 
and lower " pechos " (breasts) with a mesh of 9-centinieter bar, and the right and 
left "sobacos" (armpits) with a mesh of 20 -centimeter bar. From the sobacos 
the brazos, or arms, lead out on each side with a length of 5 or 6 fathoms, and 
a mesh of 40-centimeter bar (16 inches). In surrounding small schools of 
anchobetas, the net is worked from canoas or balsas. A larger net of the same 
type may be used for " sardinas," as referred to on page 342. It would be called 
a "sardinera" or a "red clara."" 

In the way of line fishing, we find the simple still-fishing line, or "cordel," 
the trolling fine, or "cordel bonitero," and the trawl-line or bait-line — the 
"espinel." 

The espinel is of particular interest, as one of the most effective methods of 
fishing and as being the only method by which one of the very best fishes of the 
coast is taken in any abundance. As used at Callao, Chimbote, etc., the espinel 
carries 50 to 100 hooks on short lines attached at intervals of i to 2 meters, and 
it is worked in 20 to 30 fathoms of water. The espinel fishery, however, is best 
seen at MoUendo. Fishing in 46 fathoms at a trial on the usual fishing grounds, 
and using a line of i ,500 hooks, our fishermen took 256 congrios at one haul. As 
the hooks were attached (by 30-centimeter side lines) at inter\'als of i meter, 
the length of line fished was nearly i mile, but such a line is readily worked by 
one man with an assistant to control the boat. The line was set after 7 o'clock 
in the evening and taken up after midnight. The catch of about 400 pounds of 
the best fish, made at one haul of the line, was considered good, but not unusual, 
and the fishermen describe hauls of 700 pounds on i ,200 hooks kept in the water 
for four or five hours. 

"The name "clara," it may be remarked here, is at first confusing, being applied to nets of very 
different types. The "clara" is theclear net — that is, the net which the smaller fish can pass through. 
Therefore, fishermen who speak of the anchobetera as "la red" (the net) would call the same form of 
net with larger mesh the "clara;" in another community, where the gill net for cabinsas was the net in 
most common use, and therefore spoken of as "la red," the "clara" would be a net of somewhat larger 
mesh, such as the "lizcra" or the "bonitero." Thus in one commimity the "red clara" is a gill net, 
while in another community it is an entirely different type of net. 



FISHERIES AND GUANO INDUSTRY OF PERU. 347 

In this case only four fishes other than the congrios were taken (two sea 
basses and two rays) , and it is significant that the congrio appears not to be taken 
in any numbers except by the use of the espinel. The congrio, eaten fresh, is 
considered an unsurpassed food fish, and, as will appear on a later page, it gives 
the best salt product prepared in Peru. It seems surprising, therefore, that the 
espinel is not more extensively used. The method is relatively laborious, but 
the yield is in proportion to the labor. Undoubtedly, the reluctance of the fisher- 
men to use it is due, not so much to the amount of work involved, as to its rela- 
tive intricacy, the necessity of much preparatory work in the securing of bait, 
the baiting of the many hooks, the arrangement of the lines in the tubs, and, 
finally, the constant care required in the manipulation of the line in order to 
avoid mischievous tangles. 

At Callao the espinel is not often used, and then only in a small way, the 
fishermen preferring those methods which, however much actual labor they may 
involve, require the least forethought. The congrio is practically unknown to 
the market there. Even at Mollendo, where the effectiveness of the method is 
not infrequently demonstrated, it is not regularly used, the fishermen choosing 
rather to throw a shot of dynamite near the rocks and scoop the fish from the 
surface. Undoubtedly there are extensive fishing grounds which will become 
available only with the extension of the espinel fishery or by the introduction of 
the bottom trawl-net ("red barradera")- 

Dynamite must be mentioned as one of the common methods of fishing. 
This abuse is certainly working an incalculable damage, especially in certain 
regions. It is prohibited by the government, but the efforts to prevent its use 
have so far been ineffectual, and the practice is at present the most serious 
defect of the fishery." 

PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS. 

Some of the methods of preservation employed are of especial interest, 
but before particular mention is made of these, a word may be said as to the 
significance of the fish-preservation industry to the country. 

" A list of apparatus used for taking sea fish in Peru would be made nearly complete by adding the 
following to those that have been mentioned above: The dredge, or "rastra," employed in the scallop 
fishery, especially at Callao, and a rather better rastra formerly used in the abortive pearl fishery at 
Sechura and Paita; the net for turtles, or "tortugera;" the gig, or "fisga," for taking the flounders at 
Callao, a little oil being sometimes poured on the water to make the surface smooth; the "bolador," 
made of wood in the form of the dasher of an old-fashioned churn, which is thrust sharply into the 
water, making a loud sound to drive the fish into the gill net or the trammel net; the pole and hook 
("gancho"), for taking gobies and devilfishes from the rocks; the lance ("harp6n"), thrown at the larger 
fish from the shore, from a pier, or from the boat; the harpoons, as rarely used in the fishery of sword- 
fishes ("peje-espada") at Mollendo; and the ordinary harpoon and hand-lance outfit employed in the 
shore fishery of whales at Tumbes. We are not here concerned with the various baskets and hand nets 
with which the fresh-water shrimps are taken, or with the methods employed in the lake and river 
fisheries of the interior. 



348 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

For want of convenient methods of transportation, it is only the people 
of the ports who can have the luxury of fresh fish, and even these may know- 
it only as an occasional delicacy if the fishermen are accustomed to work at a 
considerable distance from the port. To the people of the interior only salt 
fish is ever available, and they prize it highly. Even this is a rare luxury in 
most parts of the countrv, however, on account of the rather unsatisfactory 
preservation of fish and the entire want of system in the marketing and distri- 
bution of the product. At some ports, in fact, neither fresh nor salt fish are 
regularly obtainable. ' 

At the island groups of Guanape, Lobos de Afuera, and Lobos de Tierra 
practically all the fish taken are preserved by salting or drying for the supply 
of the region of coast between Salaverry and Paita. Paita even boasts a small 
exportation of salt fish, since two balandritas convey annually about 50,000 
fish (" sierras," "bonitoes, " " caballas, " " pejc-blancos, " and " meros ") to Manta, 
in Hcuador, and other ports of the north.'' 

That preserv'ed fish is not more available to the people of Peru is rather 
remarkable in view of the general occurrence of deposits of salt. In almost 
every part of the coast are found salt beds of greater or less purity. In some 
places, as near Pisco, cakes of almost pure salt can be picked up from the 
ground. The extraction, refining, and sale of salt are restricted, however, to 
the National Salt Company, and the common market price is exceedingly high. 
So far as I am aware, only the fishermen of one village, San Andres,' near Pisco, 
have the privilege, especially granted them, of taking for themselves the com- 
paratively good salt from the hillsides near the shores of Paracas, where they 
commonly fish for peje-reyes and other fishes. On the other hand, the Govern- 
ment, realizing the absolute necessity of cheap salt to the fishermen, has made 
special arrangements for their benefit. Each fisherman is entitled to receive 
monthly from the salt company 2 quintals (200 pounds) of salt at a nominal 
price, while for such further quantities as he may need the price is fixed very 
much below the regular market price. These arrangements would seem to be 
most satisfactory to the fishermen, at least; but the indigenous fisherman has 
an almost unconquerable prejudice against the purchase of salt, and wiH rarely 
go beyond the allowance, although often complaining of its inadequacy. In 
times of especial abundance, quantities of fish are therefore sold at small prices 
or allowed to spoil. 

One of the expedients of the fishermen, resulting only in part from the 
inadequacy of the salt supply, is the use of what they call "salitre. " The 

" The importation of salt and canned fish in 1905 amounted to about £38,361 (Si 86,800), but the im- 
ported product docs not reach a large proportion of the natives, who are without fish food of any kind. 

I* Sierra, Scombcromorus sierra; bonito, Sarda chilcnsis; caballa {•mo.cViereX), Scomber japonicus; 
\ic]e-h\a.nco, CaulolatUus sp.\ mero, not identified. 



FISHERIES AND GUANO INDUSTRY OF PERU. 349 

word means saltpeter, but it is applied by them to what is merely a natural 
mixture of salt and sand and other impurities, which may be found near some 
of the villages. It is claimed by many of the Indian fishermen that the fish 
preserved with the so-called salitre will keep in better condition for eating than 
those preserved with pure salt. 

The Cfude native methods of drying anchobetas have already been noted. 
Occasionally these little fishes are prepared in small quantities, by pickling, so 
as to make a very palatable food. 

Generally speaking, no choice is exercised in the selection of fish for pres- 
ervation; any fish that comes to hand and is regarded as edible will be packed 
away. There are certain forms of preservation, however, which seem to be 
worthy of further description. 

Preservation methods at Mollendo. — The fisheries of MoUendo, though not 
extensive, would form a chapter in themselves. The markets of the port and 
of Arequipa, the second city of the country, display a variety of fish products 
not seen in the more northern markets. 

On some accounts the most interesting fishery product of this region is the 
peculiar dry and tangled egg-mass which is found on the local markets as 
" cau-cau. ' ' This is the egg-mass of the " volador " or flying fish, which is collected 
in season and dried that it may be kept on the markets throughout the year. 
These eggs have an especial interest from the fact that, although flying-fish eggs 
have been known to science for nearly fifty years, they were, until quite recently, 
attributed erroneously to the little sargasso fish (Pterophryne) of supposed nest- 
building habits. A few years ago, after the discovery of the true eggs of Ptero- 
phryne, the identity of the eggs of the so-called " nests " with those of the flying 
fishes was soon established. The cau-cau appears to have been a product long 
familiar to the natives of this part of Peru, by whom the eggs have been attrib- 
uted, and correctly as it seems, to the flying fishes. 

Each egg is 2 millimeters in diameter, and its membrane is produced into a 
number of filaments, which, though rather scattered over the surface of the egg, 
have a tendency to a bipolar distribution. The filaments, though very fine, are 
quite long and the fibers of diff'erent eggs are thoroughly intertangled, to unite 
the many eggs into a closely woven mat. Sometimes the filaments are so twisted 
together as to give the appearance of a well-defined thread. 

The cau-cau of the market, then, is a large number of the shrunken berries, 
entangled to form a shapeless mat. A mat may be a good double handful or 
more, and the filaments are so completely interwoven as to make it difficult to 
tear the mass into portions. When soaked in water the eggs will expand and 
take an appearance as if freshly laid. They are found in early summer, begin- 
ning with October, and are said often to be entangled with weed. My visit 
was in July (midwinter) and the cau-cau then on the market was quite free from 



350 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

seaweed. Floating seaweed is, indeed, not common in the region, and the mat 
form of the large and otherwise shapeless masses suggests that they were formed 
while floating at the surface. 

The most important presers'ed product of the region is the " charquecito, " 
made from the congrio, a reference to the capture of which fish has already been 
made. The preparation was not observed, but as it was described the congrios 
arc opened, cleaned, washed in salt water, and hung up to dry. Six or eight 
days later they are thrown into piles ready for the market. The drying and 
subsequent preservation must be watched with care to prevent heating or 
curling. The tail bends up in drying and must be pressed or bent out to preserve 
the desired appearance. The charquecito is the most highly esteemed preserved 
fish, but, like all fish products of the coast, it is rarely shipped to other ports. It 
brings a good price, 5 or 6 reals per pound (25 to 30 cents American). 

Besides the charquecito and the cau-cau, a number of minor products are 
preserved. Dried seaweed is prepared by the simple process of putting the 
fresh weed into molds and pressing it into flat plates, which, after being 
dried in the sun, are folded and are then ready for sale. The seaweed used is 
called "uyos" or "cocho-uyos," but the species so dried is not the ordinary 
"cocho-uyos" that is eaten at other ports. 

"Lapas" (fissurellids) and "barquillos" (chitons)," after being boiled and 
stripped of the shell, are dried and strung, and a "sarta" of two dozen of these 
"atados" (strings) is sold for the very small sum of 30 centavos, or about one- 
third the price of the fresh shellfish. 

The "pincho de mar," a holothurian, is skinned and dried to make a crude 
trepang. "Ocoti," or "pota," is the sea anemone* stewed and stripped of the 
skin. It is sometimes dried. It is a custom for the Serranos, or inhabitants 
of the interior, coming down to the coast at Ilo, to take back with them the 
trepang, ocoti, etc., along with the cau-cau and charquecito. 

In this connection it may be mentioned that, besides the characteristic 
methods of preservation practiced in this region, other fisheries are followed here 
that are rarely found in other ports. The capture of the swordfish ("peje- 
espada") is sometimes attempted, and at least one fisherman is well equipped 
with the necessary harpoons. The swordfishes are said to weigh 200 to 400 
pounds and to bring 26 to 50 soles each ($13 to $25). 

The prized "erizos" (porcupines), or sea urchins, are more commonly taken 
here than elsewhere. Ascidians, which bear the surprising name of "ciruelas" 
(cherries), are stripped of the test, so that the inner portion is taken out "como 

"Lapas, Fissurella cosiata Lesson, F. crassa Lamarck; barquillos, Chiton granosus Trembly; Enoplo- 
chiton niger Barnes. 

b Phymactcr clematis (Dana) Milne-Edwards, as identified for the U. S. National Museum by Prof. 
J. Playfair McMurrich. 



FISHERIES AND GUANO INDUSTRY OF PERU. 35 1 

un huevo " (like an egg) and is eaten raw or in soups under the name of 
"cochizo" or "piuri." 

Finally an allusion should be made to the taking of the abundant bogas, 
suchis, and peje-reyes (species of fresh- water fish) in Lake Titicaca. These 
fishes are considered delicacies and are brought down to Arequipa, the chief 
city of the region. Dried lake peje-reyes were observed on the market. 

.4; Lobos de Tierra. — Reference has been made to the capture of selachians 
and flounders in the region of Lobos de Tierra. Many of these are preserved 
by sun drying and without the use of salt or other preservative. The process 
is of some interest, as the fishermen are peculiarly expert in preparing the fish. 

On the return from the fishing trip, after the fish are thrown into piles on 
the beach, the first matter is the apportionment of the catch, since two or 
more fishermen have worked together. The division accomplished, they set 
to work individually to prepare the fishes for drying. Each man has beside 
him, when at work on the beach, an oar or a board sprinkled with sand and 
used for sharpening the knife. A short sharp sheath-knife is used and it is 
whetted by a stroke or two on the oar after almost every cut that is made. 
The "guitarra" (guitar-fish) is laid on the sand with the back up. Five cuts 
practically prepare the fish. The first splits the right and left sides incom- 
pletely apart, leaving the backbone in the left half; the second lays open the 
right side of the head; the third lays open the right side of the body; the 
fourth lays open the left side of the body ; the fifth lays open the left side of the 
head. A few quick slashes to better expose the meat for salting, the removal 
of the entrails, and the making of a slit in the tail by which to hang the fish 
complete the process, and the fish is thrown aside for washing. 

The " angelota" (angel-fish) must be cut a little differently, but the process 
is accomplished with hardly less dispatch. The outer parts of the outer fins 
are first removed. The first cut sphts the fish; the second lays open the right 
side with the aid of a few additional slashes in the meat; the third and fourth 
lay open the left side. The head, gills, and entrails are then cut entirely away 
and the body of the fish is thrown aside to be washed. 

The small boys assist by taking the opened fish, two at a time, into the 
water and washing them free of the sand, blood, and other dirt. The fish are 
then hung from poles by the slit in the tail. Two or three slender pieces of 
cane put crosswise keep the skin stretched, and the fish are thus left to dry in 
the sun. Four days is said to be sufficient for the curing if the weather is 
bright. Hanging in this way, they look Uke merely a series of skins, but the 
meat is all present as a thin layer on the skin. No salt or safitre whatever is 
used on them. They are strictly sun cured, as flat thin sheets of skin and meat. 

"ToUos" (small sharks) and "cazones" (large sharks) are prepared in 
very much the same way as the angelotas. 



352 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

The "rayas" (rays) are handled in an interesting way. The fish is laid 
on the back and two circular cuts are made. The first cuts away the lower 
wall of the mouth and gill cavity, leaving this wall hanging as a flap on the 
left side anteriorly; the second cuts away the lower wall of the abdominal 
cavity, leaving this as a flap on the left side posteriorly; the entrails are then 
removed; a vertical cut from above is made through the backbone from the 
head to the base of the tail and one or two short cuts may be made on each 
side of the thick base of the tail ; a series of cuts are then made across the disk 
of the raya, which now looks Hke a circular gridiron. These crosscuts extend 
to the skin below. 

When all the rayas are prepared, sand is rubbed well into the cuts of each, 
and the fish is laid in a hole in the ground. The hole is covered with boards 
or mats or by filling with sand, and the fish are thus left in the sand on the 
beach for a day to let the moist sand absorb the blood. They are then taken 
out, washed and salted, after which they are laid across poles or logs to dry in 
the sun. Three or four days are required for the drying. 

With regard to the use of salt, the fishermen state that salt is never used 
on guitarras, but is always used on rayas; angelotas and tollos are prepared 
with or without the use of salt, according to preference or to the quantity of 
salt available. Salitre is used to some extent, but salt is considered much 
better. 

The waste products in the preparation of the fishes are simply thrown on 
the beach and the "gaviotas," or gulls, gather in great numbers to eat them. 
The eggs of the guitarra are supposed to have a certain medicinal value, and 
are sometimes saved for this purpose. 

On the mainland the dried fish bring from lo to 60 centavos apiece, 
according to the demand. Practically all of the ordinary fish taken here are 
salted, but at the time of my visit few fish, other than the selachians mentioned 
and flounders and mackerel, were being taken. 

Oils. — In the illustration (fig. 7, pi. xv), there is seen, below the drying fish, a 
turtle shell, into which has been thrown a quantity of turtle fat. Placed, as it 
is, in the sun, the shell is tilted so that the oil flows out into a can placed below 
the point of the shell, which serves as a spout. The oil is used medicinally, 
especially for dressing wounds of man or domestic animals, and also to take 
internally for troubles of the liver. Turtles were seen abundantly in this region. 
On one occasion I saw 10 heads of turtles tlirust out of the water to breathe at 
one moment and within the space of a few yards. They were feeding on the 
abundant seaweed of these shores. In this part of Peru, however, the turtles 
are rarely used, as the meat is not valued. The only place where a turtle fishery 
was observed was in the south, at Pisco. The meat is there sold locally at 25 



FISHERIES AND GUANO INDUSTRY OF PERU. 353 

to 30 cents the quarter or less, but the real object of the fishery is the oil, which 
is valued for miners' lamps. 

A net for turtles, or "tortugera," at Pisco may be about 80 fathoms long 
by 2 fathoms or a little more in depth. A net observed had a mesh of 30 centi- 
meters (i foot) bar. In the use of this net the fishermen, working near the 
shores, watch carefully, and when a turtle is seen, put the net out as quickly as 
possible. One to 5 or 6 may be taken at a time, or, when they are especially 
abundant, as many as 10 may be taken at one haul. Two fishermen, working 
together, may take as many as 80 turtles per week. January, February, and 
March are regarded as the best months in which to take them, because they are 
fattest in those months." The fat is thrown into a big pot of 8 to 10 gallons 
capacity and slowly cooked, while the shells are used for fuel. The fishermen 
state that 80 or 90 turtles yield 16 to 20 tins of oil, selling at 3 soles (about $1 .50) . 
Computing from these figures, the oil yielded by an individual turtle would be 
worth from 27 to 38 cents, while the total catch of two fishermen in one week 
might be worth $24 to $30 for oil, besides the value of the meat. 

The fishery for whales off the coast of Peru has been pursued by foreign 
vessels for more than a hundred years. After an English vessel, manned by 
American whalemen, made a most successful voyage around Cape Horn in 
1 788-1 790, the coasts of Chile and Peru soon became favored whaling grounds 
for both English and American vessels. The agreeableness of the cUmate off 
the coast of Peru, the freedom from dangerous storms, the convenience of certain 
ports, the abundance of whales, all conspired to make it a favored cruising 
ground, and Callao, Paita, and Tumbes became places of common resort for 
refitting and provisioning. Peru derived a direct commercial benefit from this 
fishery. Tumbes gained more than this; for sometimes the crews were recruited 
with local sailors, and occasionally these native recruits, acquiring experience 
and skill, rose to the rank of officials of the boat crews. In this way the "Tum.- 
beseiios" learned the methods of the whale fishery, and the way was opened 
for a national fishery. For at least twenty years persons or companies of 
Tumbes have followed this fishery, employing the well-equipped whaleboats left 
behind by the foreign whalers. It is, however, a small fishery, 10 to 14 whales 
in a season being accounted a good catch. The season of 1907 was a very poor 
one, only 4 whales being captured, with a yield of about 6,500 gallons of oil, 
valued in Tumbes at about $1,300. 

The coast has long been abandoned by all foreign whalers except a few 
Chilean boats, which are supposed to take about 150,000 gallons of oil each year. 
At the local valuation this would amount to approximately $30,000. The 



" Turtles are not known to come on the beaches to lay in this region, nor so far as I know, south 
of the region of Tumbes, where it is said that the nests are made about September. The only common 
turtle of the coast is the Pacific green turtle. The tortoise-shell turtle is said to be found very rarely. 

B. B. F. 1908 — 23 



354 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

Chilean boats, which are said to use the whaHng gun and explosive harpoon, 
probably take chiefly the sperm whales; while the native whalers confine their 
attention to the humpback whales found nearer the shore in the Gulf of Guaya- 
quil, and employ only the harpoon and lance thrown by hand. The Gulf of 
Guayaquil is reputed to be a favored breeding ground of the humpback whale, 
and it is about at the bearing season (May, June, etc.) that the local fishery is 
pursued. 

Except the preparation of oil from turtles at Pisco and the capture of 
whales at Tumbes, there is no fishery for oils in Peru. 

For a time the sea lions (" lobos de mar ") were taken for the oil and hides, 
but the government prohibited the continuance of the fishery, partly because 
of the use of dynamite and partly that an inquiry might first be made as to 
the relation of the sea lions to the guano-producing birds. It was a question 
whether the lobos were injurious to the birds, in the competition for food, or 
were of real assistance to them in so herding and demoralizing the surface 
fishes as to make them more available to the birds. It is probable now that the 
fishery will be resumed under proper regulations and restrictions. 

The porpoises and dolphins seem never to have been sought; in fact, many 
of the fishermen have a peculiarly friendly feeling for these animals, believing 
that in some way they aid the Christians ("ayuda los Cristianos ") . 

Fur seals, "lobos finos" or "lobos de dos pelos" (lobos of two coats), 
while undoubtedly occurring on the coast as far north as Paracas, are not 
abundant enough, nor perhaps of sufficient value, to support a fishery. The 
"gato de mar" (sea-cat), a species of river otter (Lutra) that lives in the 
sea, is not uncommon in some regions, but is never abundant. Its pelt when 
taken is regarded as of some value." 

FUTURE OF THE nSHERY INDUSTRY. 

In spite of the antiquity of the fisheries of Peru, and notwithstanding 
the introduction of European fishermen with their improved boats and nets, 
the industry is now so inadequate and unsatisfactory that the larger part 
of the people of Peru are not supplied with a class of food which they peculiarly 
appreciate. 

Some of the difficulties are inherent in the situation in a country whose 
industrial life in all its phases is relatively undeveloped, and many of these 
difficulties will disappear naturally as the country generally advances further 
in the path of industrial progress which it has so propitiously entered. Rapid 
and frequent transportation between ports is wanting, railroad rates are neces- 



" We are not concerned with the preservation of the large fresh-water fishes by smoking and 
other methods which are practiced on the headwaters of the Amazon. I have been informed that this 
is such an extensive industry that smoked fish in that part of Peru is a more common food than beef. 



FISHERIES AND GUANO INDUSTRY OF PERU. 355 

sarily high, and ice is at present at almost prohibitive prices. The fishery 
industry everywhere is without that organization and specialization which 
marks the higher stage of development attained in many other countries. 
Each fisherman makes his own nets, conveys his catch to port, sells the fish 
fresh or preserves them by salting or drying for sale at a future time — every- 
thing in an individual way. Experience in other countries shows that economy 
is the result of systematization, and that the middleman, even if characterized 
as the "necessary evil," may not only keep the market more regularly sup- 
plied but also give the fisherman a better average profit and the consumer a 
lower average price. So in Peru we find the fish when unusually abundant 
thrown away or sold at a very low price, because the fisherman has not the 
means or lacks the energy to preserve a large catch, while the public complain 
of an irregular market and of an excessively high price in ordinary times. I 
have referred to the unusual appreciation of fish-food by Peruvians. Rarely 
is a meal served without fish where it is obtainable, yet to a large part of the 
people beyond the ports this much-prized luxury is seldom to be had. 

Modernizing the fishery is not sought for itself, for many of the original 
Peruvian methods of capture are suited to the natural conditions and best 
adapted to the social nature, the abilities, and the wants of the people. Except 
in Callao and Mollendo, the fishermen are all native Peruvians but slightly 
touched by the wave of modern progress. In attempting to introduce new and 
larger methods, it would be unnecessary and unjust to hamper or antagonize 
a kindly people, poor in wealth but rich in contentment, who are working out 
a peaceful and honorable life after the bent of their nature. The caballito and 
the balsa, the chinchorro and the anchobetera, the camerone traps and other 
native nets may long continue to give satisfactory food to many Peruvians. 
Yet if the native fishermen may be taught to capture their fish more abundantly, 
and to salt and dry them more efficiently, their labors may be the more profit- 
able and the more useful to them and to others. Furthermore, without preju- 
dice to them, their fisheries may be supplemented by those who can pursue the 
industry in a larger way and with better organization ; and this is clearly neces- 
sary if the larger part of the population of Peru is to obtain fish and to have 
it regularly and cheaply. 

The abundant catches of the excellent congrios made with the espinel 
(trawl line or bait line) in the region of Mollendo and the success of this method 
when used in other parts show well that, although relatively laborious, it 
could be more extensively employed to great advantage. The deep bottom 
trawlnets, while not actually tested in Peruvian waters, would in strong proba- 
bility prove successful, and it is much to be desired that experiments be made 
with them. The use of power boats will be necessary, and the introduction 
of these for quick conveyance of fish to market will enable the fishermen to 



356 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

Spend a greater proportion of their time upon the fishing places, increase the 
territory convenient!)' accessible for the markets of Callao and Lima, and 
open new fishing grounds. Finally, the opportunities are excellent for the 
proper preservation of several kinds of fish by various methods. 

II. THE GUANO INDUSTRY. 

The guano problem, which is perhaps the most important economic ques- 
tion confronting the nation of Peru to-day, has been included in the fishery 
studies partly because it is impossible entirely to dissociate the guano industry 
nd the fisheries in protective and regulative measures. Strictly, indeed, we 
may consider guano a fishery product, for it is formed by the birds from the 
small fishes, which swim in such enormous schools along this coast. Chiefly 
for this reason, in fact, I have on a previous page referred to the anchobeta 
as the most important resource of the waters of Peru. It is, however, an inade- 
quate statement of the relation of the guano and fishery industries to say that 
the existence of the guano-producing birds in Peru is dependent upon the presence 
of large schools of fish. One of the most important products of the fishery 
industry of the United States is the fish guano made by direct manufacture 
from the menhaden. In Peru a nearly equal value of guano is produced annually 
from the anchobetas through the agency of the birds. This guano is obtained 
far more cheaply than if the process of manufacture were depended upon, 
since it can be brought from the islands at little more than the cost of trans- 
portation. (Fig. 8, pi. XV.) It is a very significant practical question to what 
extent Peru should continue to depend upon the birds for the production of 
nitrogenous guano, or whether the direct manufacture of fertilizer from the 
fishes should be undertaken in order to supplement the present available sup- 
ply. This question will not be specifically discussed at this time, but the matter 
here presented has a very direct relation to its solution. 

Peru owes the importance of its guano deposits, not only to the abundance 
of the sea birds and the fishes upon which they feed, but in equal part to those 
natural conditions which have permitted the conservation of the nitrogenous 
parts of the guano. Had the coast been subject to rains, or were the climate 
more moist, the nitrogenous portion of the guano would have been converted 
into ammonia and lost by evaporation or drainage. There would have resulted 
then, at the best, a pliosphatic guano of relatively low value. The guano 
consists, as is well known, of the excrement of birds and sea lions, with the other 
oflfal matter of the rookeries, consisting of- bodies of birds and sea lions, birds' 
eggs, and fish. For our purposes the sea lions may be excluded from consider- 
ation. Undoubtedly they have lent considerable bulk to certain deposits of 
guano, but, from such information as can be gained, it seems practically sure 



FISHERIES AND GUANO INDUSTRY OF PERU. 357 

that apparent deposits of seal guano which have given a high analysis owe 
their chemical value in large measure to bird guano which has been formed 
with it. 

THE PROBLEM. 

It is difficult to overestimate the significance of the guano problem to 
Peru. It is not merely that the country is threatened with the loss of an 
exportation industry which has yielded important revenues ; the sugar and cotton 
planters of the country have been coming more and more to recognize the value 
of the fertilizer for the production of their crops. In fact, with the relatively 
crude methods and the inefficient labor, combined with the necessary expense 
of irrigation, the profit from these crops is, to a considerable extent, dependent 
upon the availability of a cheap fertilizer. Even at this time the nation's 
agriculturists are estimated to require 40,000 tons annually, while, under 
existing conditions, they have been able to secure only about two-thirds of 
this amount. The guano deposits have been so mortgaged for the payment of 
the bonded debt that, under the present arrangements, the largest part of 
the guano must be exported. Thus, in 1907, of approximately 124,000 tons 
of guano extracted, only 26,000 tons were taken for the agriculture of Peru. 
Under a continuance of the present conditions, it is certain that even this 
proportion of the nation's requirement can not be obtained for more than a 
few years longer. 

The exhaustion of the old deposits will soon be realized. It is true that 
there have been "false alarms" in the past in this regard. Islands which 
have been proclaimed exhausted have been revisited and have afforded new 
supplies of the fertilizer. This has been due only in a relatively small degree 
to the continued deposition of the birds ; in part it is explained by the occasional 
discovery of new deposits of buried guano; but that the same island has been 
successively exhausted two or more times is chiefly accounted for by the fact 
that the term "exhaustion" has been used in a relative sense. At one time 
it was not profitable to extract guano lower than a certain grade, while at a 
later time the market would be content with a fertilizer of much lower nitrogen 
value. It would become profitable, then, to return to "exhausted" islands 
where the lower grades had remained. 

At present the old guano supplies are reduced to the very lowest grades 
that it would be profitable to extract and transport to foreign markets, and 
the approximate amount of such guano being known, it is estimated that at the 
present rate of exportation all the available guano of old formation will be 
removed within four or five years. It is not probable that new deposits will 
be found of sufficient quantity to change the present outlook materially. 



358 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

It is clear, therefore, that within a few years the guano industry will be 
dependent upon the yearly production of the birds. The amount of this new 
production can not be stated accurately, but it is fairly estimated to be between 
20,000 and 30,000 tons. This amount, if divided as now between the export 
and the home trade, would be of comparatively little value to either. The 
estimated annual production is, indeed, less in number of tons than is actually 
required by Peru's agricultural industries alone; but since the new guano has a 
much higher average nitrogen value than the guano that is now used, and on 
which the estimated annual demand is based, it is probable that the yearly 
formation would meet the present demands of home agriculture. Furthermore, 
it is believed that with the adoption of the correct method of working the islands, 
and with the most thorough protection of the birds, there would result a mate- 
rial increase in the production of guano, sufficient to keep pace for a consider- 
able time with the growing demand. It is even possible that there would be 
a surplus for exportation. 

THE GUANO-PRODUCING BIRDS. 

At least twenty-four species of birds frequent the islands, not including 
seven species observed at sea in proximity to the islands and coast. Twelve of 
these were observed nesting on the islands. From the commercial standpoint 
the chief birds are the cormorant, the pelican, and the gannet, the first and last 
mentioned being the most abundant birds on the coast. 

THE CORMORANT. 

The white-breast cormorant {Phalacrocorax hougainvillei Lesson), the para- 
mount guano-producing bird, occurs along practically the entire coast, nesting on 
the level ground or the more gentle slopes, and always in closely crowded rookeries 
(fig. 9 and 10, pi. xvi). This cormorant, the " guanay," occurs most abundantly 
in the south, at the Ballestas and Chincha islands. The nests are closely crowded 
over great areas, where it may readily be ascertained that they average about 
three to the square meter. At the close of the season there may be allowed at 
least four birds to a nest, counting the parents and one pair of young. The 
population of a flock, after the young are raised, may therefore be estimated by 
multiplving b\- twelve the number of square meters covered by the rookery. On 
the Ballestas and Chincha islands in June, 1907, rookeries of 4,600, 10,000 to 
12,000, and 60,000 square meters, respectively, were measured, and other smaller 
rookeries were observed. These flocks, then, must have contained 55,000, 
120,000, and 720,000 birds, respectively. At a later time the last-mentioned 
flock, on the South Chincha Island, was so much increased, chiefly through 
recruits from the other flocks, that a million birds could have been only an 
underestimate of its population. The photograph (fig. 9, pi. xvi) shoAvs but a 
very small portion of this immense aggregation of birds. 



FISHERIES AND GUAXO INDUSTRY OF PERU. 359 

It mav be of interest here to consider for a moment the potential commercial 
value of such flocks of birds. Let us assume that each of these birds leaves upon 
the island dailv a single ounce of guano. This is actually an underestimate, as 
such a rate of deposition would not account for the quantity of guano actually 
extracted after a 5-ear's accumulation on a rookery; but on this assumption 
of I ounce a day for each bird, the deposit would grow daily by i ,000,000 ounces, 
62,500 pounds, or 28 long tons. A million birds would then produce over 
10,000 long tons of guano per year. Such an amount is probably not actually 
formed at this ground, for the reason that a million birds is a decided overestimate 
of the average number of birds on the rookery throughout the year. However, on 
the assumption of i ounce of guano per day per bird, it follows that 100 birds 
would produce i long ton of guano per year. 

We may come more nearly to the actual conditions. From the various 
calculations I have made it appears that a rookery will yield about i long ton 
of guano per year for 28 nests. This guano of the "guanayes" is very high in 
nitrogen, giving an analysis of 12 to 14 per cent and higher, and we may value 
it at $40 per ton." Twenty-eight nests, or 28 pairs of birds, have an annual 
producing value of $40. We give a fair idea of the commercial significance of 
these birds to Peru when we say that each brace of birds contributes annually 
$1.43 worth of guano, besides leaving a pair of offspring to continue its service. 
Is it not, then, of the greatest importance that the fullest protection should be 
extended the birds, and every possible precaution taken to insure that there may 
be the maximum number of birds at every rookery, and that these birds may 
remain upon the rookery the maximum amount of time? 

Previous to making the above computation, from observations at other 
rookeries, I had estimated the number of nests on the south island of the Chin- 
chas at 180,000, and, by an independent series of measurements of the deposits of 
guano at various places in the rookery after two years of accumulation, had esti- 
mated the amount of guano at between 12,000 and 15,000 tons. Making a new 
calculation on the basis of the figures just worked out — that is, i ton to 28 nests — 
the 180,000 nests would give 6,400 tons per year, which is in close agreement with 
the original computation from measures and weights taken on the rookery. 

" The cost of guano to a Peruvian farmer can not be taken as a basis of valuation, since the govern- 
ment practically gives the guano to him, exacting a tax of only i sol (about 49 cents) the ton. The 
expense to the farmer is merely the cost of extraction and transportation. The cost of a ton of 9 per 
cent guano on the farm is, therefore, only $12 or $13 in American gold. This cost, however, does 
not at all represent the value of the guano, if the cost were based on the ordinary laws of supply and 
demand. The real value to the farmer "can not be computed. 

The guano for export was consigned to the exporting company many years ago by a process of 
adjustment, in return for the acceptance of certain obligations; so that it is not practicable, either, to 
calculate the value of the export guano on the ground. 

However, considering the high selling value of guano of such excellent quality in foreign markets, 
and since the cost of extraction is less than $5, and the freight relatively low, it can not be considered 
unreasonable to assume that guano of this high anaylsis has a value to the world of $40 per ton. 



360 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

THE PELICAN. 

The second bird in importance is the "alcatraz," or pelican {Pelecanus 
tliagus MoHna), although it has not now nearly the rank of the cormorant. 
The pelican is not only far less abundant, but it appears that its guano is dis- 
tinctly less in quantity and inferior in value to that of the cormorant. It can 
not be said in what degree this is due to an inherent difference in the birds, or to 
the fact that the cormorant breeds chiefly on the islands of the south, where the 
conditions are better for the preservation of the guano, while the pelican now 
breeds chiefly in the north where the atmosphere is more humid, and therefore 
deleterious in its effects on the deposits of guano. 

There is one thing of especial importance for consideration in regard to 
this bird. The pelican, of all the useful birds, is the one which seems to be 
most affected by the disturbances incident to the extraction of guano, and there- 
fore, of the three chief commercial birds, it is the one which has been most reduced 
in numbers. This may offer a reasonable basis of hope for the future. It does 
not appear that the breeding territory of the pelican was always confined as now 
to the northern regions. The islands of the south are smaller, so that the work- 
ing of the islands is more directly disturbing to the birds. It is natural, there- 
fore, that the rookeries of pelicans in this region should now be small and con- 
fined to the outlying and less accessible rocks. In the north, on the other 
hand, the islands of Lobos de Tierra and Lobos de Afuera are comparatively 
large, giving more opportunity to the birds to separate themselves from the 
guano workers. During recent years, too, the extraction in the north has usu- 
ally been restricted to one group of islands, while the other was left to the undis- 
turbed possession of the breeding birds. It is unfortunate that during the 
past two years both islands have been worked, with results which can not but 
be seriously injurious to the welfare of the pelicans. 

In March, 1907, large pelican rookeries, with eggs and all stages of young, 
were observed to the eastward of the LoIdos de Afuera islands and an islet just 
off the north end of this island. During the following winter, about August 
probably, the birds were entirely routed from these islands, and the rookeries 
were swept clean of guano. A new home was established on the westward 
island, where the photograph (fig. 11, pi. xvii) was taken in December, in the 
early part of the laying season. Not a single bird remained to make its nest 
on the islet, and only a few very small and scattered rookeries were found on the 
entire eastward island. 

In March, 1907, there were probably about 80,000 flying birds (mature ami 
immature pelicans, not counting the nestlings of every stage) using the Lobos 
de Afuera islands at night. In December, 1907, there were between 20,000 and 
40,000 nesting birds on the same islands. The irregular nature of the rookerie^ 



FISHERIES AND GUANO INDUSTRY OF PERU. 36 1 

made it impossible to arrive at a more definite estimate. Probably by the fol- 
lowing March, after the rearing of a brood of young, this number was nearly 
doubled, but it can hardly be supposed there were so many as in the preceding 
March. 

It is believed that a proper consideration of the welfare of the pelican would 
promise much benefit to the country. It may be expected that with the most 
careful protection, the bird would increase materially in numbers in the north, 
and even more so in the south, so that in time the pelican would have a much 
higher value and would take a rank nearer to that of the cormorant. 

THE GANNET. 

The common " piquero, " a species of gannet {Sula variegata Tschudi) , which 
von Tschudi considered the most important bird (and this view seems to have 
been generally accepted), is still important, though of far less value than the 
other two species mentioned. However, on account of its habit of nesting on 
the cHffs and other comparatively inaccessible places, the great proportion of 
the guano is now lost in the sea, and it is doubtful whether the bird has ever 
had a commercial value comparable to the cormorant or the pelican. (Fig. 10, 
pi. XVI.) With the better systematization of the guano industry in future years, 
much of this guano now lost might be saved by the construction of shelves or 
other collectors at the bases of the cliffs. 

Von Tschudi found that a single piquero in captivity would produce 3><' 
to 5 ounces of guano per day. If each bird leaves about its nest 2 ounces of 
guano daily, 1,000,000 piqueros would leave 20,000 tons per year. The piquero 
is so abundant and so generally distributed along the coast that i ,000,000 would 
seem a low estimate of the number of birds on even a portion of the coast. 
The piquero breeds throughout the year and the nests therefore are always in use. 

THE PENGUIN AND THE PETREL. 

Only two other species require particular mention. The penguin, or " pajaro- 
nino" {Spheniscus humboldli Meyen), is now of almost negligible value, but was 
formerly so abundant as to be highly ranked by Raimondi. The rookeries are 
confined to the caverns, and the guano is considered very good, although there 
is little of it. 

The " potoyunco, " a species of petrel {Halodroma garnoti Lesson) of oceanic 
habit except for its nesting in subterranean homes, is still significant, but in 
relatively low degree. The nesting places are found on many islands, however, 
especially on the lofty San Gallan. Great areas of the surface of the ground, 
from the lower hillsides to the tops of the peaks that are usually capped with 
clouds, are undermined by nesting chambers of these birds. They will burrow 
indifferently through the hard crust of sand on the hillsides or beneath the 



362 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

cloud-fed vegetation of the hilltops. The guano produced here must be of sig- 
nificant quantity, and it is reputed to be of high quality. It is remarkable to 
note that this little bird was given first rank by Raimondi. 

The penguin and the potoyunco from their habits are the most helpless 
against ruthless destruction, and they seem undoubtedly to have been reduced 
from a condition when they possessed a much greater economic value than 
now. The exterminating process still continues, as both birds are frequently 
killed by the fishermen and the guano laborers. The potoyuncos especially are 
regularly sought by the fishermen. They can easily be captured at night in 
their underground nests, and quantities of them are taken to be salted and 
sold on the mainland. If adequate protection is extended to these two birds 
it seems reasonable to hope that they would increase in numbers toward the 
former condition of abundance and again take rank as important economic 
assets. 

It is not within our province at present to speak of the other cormorants, 
another gannet, the gulls and terns, and the shore birds which are found on the 
island and coast. None of these species, individually, has a commercial impor- 
tance, yet it must be remarked that, collectively, they may add materially to 
the total quantity of guano which may be swept from the ground. 

EXTRACTION OF GUANO AND PROTECTION OF THE BIRDS. 

Under the existing arrangement, all of the guano that is exported from 
the country is taken by a single corporation, which has offices in Lima, as well 
as in London, New York, and other cities. The corporation does not usually 
work the islands, but has the guano* extracted by contract, paying to the con- 
tractor so much per ton delivered to the vessel. Often these contracts, involv- 
ing only a few thousand tons, are given to native contractors. A large part of 
the export guano, however, is extracted by a single commercial company, which 
works now upon the northern islands. From this guano the government 
derives no present revenue, but the amount extracted is reported to the gov- 
ernment and credited against the amount of guano which has been mortgaged 
to the corporation for obligations of the government previously taken over by 
the corporation. 

The guano for the Peruvian agriculturists is extracted by a similar contract 
system, with the following method of procedure: The farmer who desires guano 
applies to one of the many individual contractors. A typical contract ma)^ be 
instanced. The contractor agrees to sell and the farmer to buy 600 metric 
tons of guano at 14 soles (about $7) the ton, the guano to give an analysis of 9 
per cent of nitrogen. The contract further provides that if the average analysis 
is higher or lower the farmer will pay an additional price of i sol per ton for 
each unit of nitrogen above 9, while 2 soles the ton will be deducted from the 



FISHERIES AND GUANO INDUSTRY OF PERU. 363 

price for each unit below 9. Another type of contract might cover a larger 
quantity of guano, say 5,000 tons, to be delivered during four years, certain 
stated amounts to be made available each year. The contractor, having calcu- 
lated the amount of guano necessar}^ to fulfill his contracts for a given year, 
applies to the Ministerio de Hacienda (corresponding to our Department of the 
Treasury) for a concession to take such and such amounts of guano from stated 
islands, and, if the concession be awarded, the contractor pays to the govern- 
ment I sol for each ton conceded. In case of failure to obtain the amount 
asked for, and on which payment has been made, the government adjusts the 
matter equitably by continuing the balance of the concession to the following 
season or refunding the proportionate part of the payment. 

This introduces one of the weakest points in the present method of extrac- 
tion. It frequently happens that two or three or more concessionists are 
authorized to take guano from the same island. Only one who has lived on 
the islands while the working was in progress can appreciate the bitterness of 
competition that ensues. The disputes, the threats, and the personal violence 
which may arise are aside from the question. It is the effect upon the birds 
that is of vital moment. 

Since it is understood that a concessionist establishes finally his claim to 
any deposit of guano by throwing this into piles, and since the best of the 
guano is found at the rookeries, disaster to the birds is inevitable. The first 
party to arrive, or the strongest, as the case may be, obtains possession of the 
rookery, and within a few days the entire breeding ground is torn up and the 
birds completely routed, without regard to the presence of immature birds or 
unhatched eggs. Under a better system a responsible contractor would at 
least allow the birds to use a portion of the ground, while, with as much consid- 
eration of them as possible, the guano was being extracted from the remainder. 
I should not omit to add that I have seen some concessionists working in this 
intelligent way where there was due opportunity. (Fig. 8, pi. xv.) 

The government has not failed to recognize the necessity for protection 
of the birds. The destruction of birds or of eggs has been made a penal offense, 
and it is now practically stopped. It is a difficult matter to keep a thorough 
surveillance of a long coast, where the towns are widely removed, and of many 
islands, some of which are miles from the mainland. Hence there is still some 
violation of these laws, and the potoyunco, as has been mentioned, suffers 
especially from such depredation. At times, too, the eggs of more important 
birds may be taken, but the wholesale robbery of nests has been practically 
eliminated. Formerly the eggs were valued for food and for use of the albumen 
in clarifying wines, and it is said that enormous quantities were taken regularly. 

That which most concerns the present government is how to regulate the 
working of the islands so that the necessary amount of guano may be taken 



364 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

with as little detriment as possible to the birds. Two years ago a "closed." 
season of five months was established, to include the months of November to 
March, which constitute the height of the breeding season, and the writer was 
instructed to make a study of the habits of the birds, with reference to deter- 
mining whether such a period was proper or adequate, or whether other methods 
of regulation were required. As a result of the studies made on various visits 
to the chief rookeries, it became apparent that the closed season adopted was 
inadequate, although it was a most significant step in the right direction and 
has undoubtedly already yielded results of value. 

The pelican rookeries on the ist of April were covered with eggs 
containing live embryos, and with all stages of young birds, immature and 
incompletely feathered. Young pelicans only partially feathered were to be 
found as late as June. Cormorants were feeding their young from mouth to 
mouth in June, while already the preliminary love plays and preparation of 
nests for the following season were in progress. By the end of July a large 
number of eggs were laid for the following season and a few even had hatched. 

It follows, therefore, incontrovertibly, that there can be no season when 
the islands may be worked without disturbance of the birds. I believe the 
rookeries of pelicans and cormorants are never deserted voluntarily except for 
so long a period in the day as may be necessary to secure food. The breeding 
season of the gannet, as has been mentioned, is continuous throughout the year. 

It becomes very clear, then, that only a very carefully and consistently 
followed plan of rotation in the working of the islands would insure the birds 
the best conditions for undisturbed breeding. For a period of at least five 
years certain islands in each region might be left as the unmolested abode of 
the birds, while the extraction of guano was being prosecuted on other islands. 
At the expiration of that period, certain other islands would be closed while 
the accumulations of guano on the previously closed islands would be avail- 
Able for extraction. The system might be worked out in such a way that each 
year certain islands would be opened, and a steady supply of guano be avail- 
able each year." 

In partial adoption of a plan of rotation, the government has kept the 
south island of the Chinchas entireh' closed during the past two open seasons, 
and it is estimated that by the expiration of the third year of closure there 
will have accumulated on this one island about 20,000 tons of guano of the 
highest grade. It is only fair to state that the government has enforced the 
closed season and kept this island closed in the midst of very serious difficul- 

" The plan which the writer drafted in igoy for the Chincha and Ballestas Islands and other points 
of the region (Boletin del Ministerio de Fomento, Junio, 1907) may be cited as an illustration. After 
further observation of the birds on the rookeries, I would modify this plan by using five-year instead of 
three-year periods, as was then suggested. 



FISHERIES AND GUANO INDUSTRY OF PERU. 365 

ties. We have seen that it has proved impossible to grant to the farmers of 
the country the full amount of the guano which they desire. However warmly 
and sincerely the principle of regulation may be indorsed, there must be faced 
a strong and not unreasonable cry from the many farmers for more fertilizer. 
Only by the opening of the middle, and later of the north, island of the Chin- 
chas, which it had been intended to keep closed, and by the opening of the 
Lobos de Afuera Island, was it possible to give to the farmers the two-thirds 
portion of the guano which they required. 

A large and important industry with exacting relations to creditors and 
to national agriculture can not be thrown upon a new basis in a moment; but 
the interests of all concerned are linked with the welfare of the industry, and 
it is believed that those on all sides who have power or influence are giving 
serious attention to the matter. It is probable that the proper solution of the 
question will not long be delayed, and we may confidently anticipate a brighter 
and far more satisfactory future for the guano industry, at least so far as the 
people of Peru are concerned. 

CONCLUSION. 

As a concluding word, it may be stated that the investigation of the fishery 
and guano industries was taken up a little less than two years ago. The first step 
has been the collation of data regarding the industries, the methods in use, and 
especially the conditions and the opportunities for development. The studies of 
the present writer conclude at this point. It is intended by the government 
to continue these studies and to adopt practical measures that will facilitate the 
development of the industries. It is evident that important economic results 
may be gained which will benefit both the fishing population and the country 
at large. 

It is hoped also that arrangements may be made to investigate the fresh 
waters of the interior with reference to determining whether it is possible and 
profitable to introduce new species of fish into some of the lakes and rivers. 

It is to be added that the government appreciates the ultimate necessity 
for an accurate knowledge of the marine fauna and flora, and desires to pro- 
mote a knowledge of the natural historj^ of the country. With this in view, the 
writer was instructed to collect the chief economic forms and others associated 
with these. The collections thus made will probably not include many new 
forms, except of the fishes, but it is intended that they shall serve as a basis for 
systematic reports illustrating the economic forms and epitomizing the present 
systematic information regarding the more important economic groups. To 
this end the collections will be intrusted to specialists in the various groups. It 
is believed that the reports will be of value to science and that they will be of 
especial service to those who may in future have the opportuinty to enlarge our 
knowledge of the natural history of a comparatively neglected region. 



Bit:.. U. S. P.. F.. 190S. 



Plate XII. 




1 II,. 1.— A characteristic scene on the coast desert, taken from the Southern Railroatl betv 
.\requipa and Juliaca. 




Fig ' —Month of the River Riniac near Callao. On the left the ocean, on the right the lagoon 
formed bv the river. The water of the lagoon escapes into the ocean by seeping through 
the natural dike of shingle 



Bui.. U. vS. B. F., 190S. 



Pl.ATT.-, XIII. 




Fig. 4.— Native fisherman in the surf, throwing the ataraya (cast 



Bri,. IT. vS. B. F., 190S. 



Plate XIV 




Fig. 6.— Balsa on I,ake Titicaca. Made i if rculs 



BuL. U. .S. R. F., 1908. 



Platk XY 




Fig, -.—Drying sharks, guitar-fishes, etc., without the u-e uf salt. I,ul"., .le 1 



fe^#'^ 





Fig. s.— Sacking guauu tu he shippeil by alula- rivel 1 automatic trolley 1. Ilallcstas Islands 



Bit.. V. S. 1!. I'., kjoS- 



Plati. X\'I. 




Fl.;. u.— A ven,- small portion of a flock of cormorants on the sonth island of the Chinchas 








^'^'^m 









-A sin;tU flock of cormorants on the top of the south island of the Halle 
are barely distinguishable on the ledges. 



BtTL. U. vS. ]5. F., 1 90S. 



Plate XVII. 




